Discussion Board 4-2 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Discussion Board 4-2 - Assignment Example She said that she is currently in possession of a gun, but she does not know whether she would actually use it. This calls for confidentiality, which is a basic and long-standing legal and ethical principle that is recognized in all helping professions, and counselors must realize how confidentiality applies in specific counseling situations in order to minimize the likelihood of their being required to divulge confidential client information against their will. Marcie indicates that her mother accompanied her for the appointment and is in the waiting room, but she stresses the importance of keeping the sissu from her mother. Here, respecting diversity, a fundamental factor in protecting client welfare and promoting client dignity must be applied. As such, this delicate situation be handled more in acordance with the ethics orientation that tends to focus on client welfare and protection, than a legal orientation that focuses more on protecting the

The eventual fall of the Ottoman Empire Essay Example for Free

The eventual fall of the Ottoman Empire Essay How far did the reforms during the period 1826-39 contribute to the eventual fall of the Ottoman Empire? The Ottoman Empire (1299-1924), founded as a medieval dynasty, collapsed and re-emerged as a modern constitutional state in less than seven centuries. The crucial question is why? What caused so momentous a transformation? There is much historical debate as to the causes for, and underlying factors in the empires collapse. Ive focused my study on the reforms passed during the period 1826-39, for I would consider these central in understanding the nature of the empires transformation. The years between 1826 and 1839 were a key turning point in the empires history and relations with foreign powers. In this period, crucial wars were fought, reforms ratified and institutions dismantled. Sultan Abdulmecid declared in 1839, [my empire] will prove [] that it is worthy of a prominent place in the concert of civilised nations. As Suraiya Farooqhi et al, in their detailed study of the latter centuries of the empires history put it, such events are important for they physically acknowledged, reaffirmed, and maintained the new centralizing/westernizing course of the Ottoman state.i Historians, whose studies are based foremost on European sources e.g. Lord Kinross and Feroz Ahmadii, tend to see the reforms as progressive, and attribute the empires collapse to a failure to industrialise. On the other hand, other historians, e.g. E.Eldemiii and Professor Maksudoglu, as well as Stanford J. Shawiv, all of whom rely more heavily on Ottoman sources, see the reforms as far more degenerate. Maksudoglu suggests Osmanli [Ottoman] sources have been neglected and ignored. v Shaw argues that Ottoman history has been discussed but always from the European perspective, through the light of European prejudice, and largely on the basis of European sources.vi It is due to a neglect of Ottoman sources that many historians have misinterpreted the causes of the empires collapse; there exists an unnatural bias towards the conventional European justification. As Goodwin suggests, foreign historians tend to blame the international forces of capitalism their capital, their force and suggest that the West reduced the empire to a peripheral producer of raw materials.vii Nevertheless, most historians agree that European influence proved to be of ever-increasing significance in determining the empires transformations. Ahmad suggests that ministers from the Sublime Porte visited Europe, in particular France, more frequently and returned home impressed with what they saw and learned.viii In the 1830s, an Ottoman poet wrote: Go to Paris, young sir, if you have any wish; if you have not been to Paris, you have not come into the world.ix Although the poet was probably writing for the purposes of entertainment, not necessarily for historical accuracy, the extract offers insight into not only the opinion of the poet, but his influence on the audiences perception. The likelihood of the sources reliability, although anonymous, is further strengthened when looked at in the context of Eastern, in particular Muslim, society. The oral tradition was, and still is of significant importance. The point made by Ahmad and the poet shows how the Ottoman view of Europe shifted significantly in the period; Europe had something to offer the empire. Ministers visiting Paris understood the basis of European superiority and in turn saw the need to drastically alter their own system. The Janissary purge of 1826 was first of the Sultans drastic alterations. It was impossible to introduce military and administrative reform whilst faced with the staunch opposition of the conservative ulema [Islamic religious authority], supported by the Janissaries. Ahmad agrees; as he puts it, such schemes were impossible to introduce while the conservatives were so strongly entrenched. Backed by the Janissaries, they were sufficiently powerful to depose reformist sultans and execute their grand viziers.x As Mansel points out, the official history of enumerated acts of insubordination by the corps [stretched] back to the reigns of Selim I and Suleyman.xi By combining evidence from these sources, we can see that the abolition of the corps, also known as the the purging of the garden of the empire of savage and useless weeds, or the Blessed Event was inevitable. The abolition removed the final vestiges of conservatism, thus making it possible for foreign governments to influence the Sultan and the Sublime Porte [Ottoman government]. It was the beginning of an era of almost continuous reform, as Mansel put it, it seemed that only the Janissaries had delayed the empires return to the openness of the reign of Fatih and the early sixteenth century.xii The Janissaries created a climate of fear and disorder. The ulema had largely supported the Janissary reign of misrule, preferring conservative anarchy to innovation and reform.xiii By 1826 the Janissaries had managed to alienate the ulema, and even the common citizens were against them. This was partly due to the treatment of the citizens by the Janissaries and also, as Ahmad suggests, because of the Janissarys poor performance in the Greek insurrection of 1821. Mahmud II waited eighteen years to abolish the Janissaries, who had overthrown and executed his predecessor, Selim III. They were becoming a law unto themselves and were now even unable to fight; they were less soldiers, and more private citizens who just so happened to be on the military payroll. My argument is strengthened by R. G. Grant, who agrees that the Janissaries, once so admired, became a weakness through their political intriguing and their conservatism, which obstructed military reform.xiv Although Grant is correct, the Janissaries did obstruct military reform, they helped to defend the empires citizens against the Sultans excesses, as Maksudoglu argues, [after 1826] top officials lived a luxurious and corrupt life, while the government borrowed substantial sums of money from European powers, and inflation reached unprecedented levels. xv As Goodwin suggests it was no longer the Ottoman peasant to whom the sultans had to answer for their extravagance. There were no Janissaries now to growl at the dissipation of the court.xvi In 1875, due to the Sultans lavish spending, the empire declared bankruptcy. There is no doubt that this contributed to its collapse. The ulema, fearing a similar fate [as the Janissaries] offered the government no resistance. As Mansel put it, [the ulema] fearing similar annihilation if they opposed the government, [they] kept silent.xvii The Blessed Event was more revenge, than considered reform. As Cunningham notes, years later a British general watched with his own eyes as the Sultan supervised workmen striking the Janissary bonnets off gravestones in a Pera burial-ground.xviii Goodwin substantiating Cunninghams argument states: Janissary headstones, topped by the cocky turban of the order, were knocked over.xix Claims of acts of vengeance are supported by the eye-witness account of British Dragoman, Bartolomeo Pisani: Every corrner of the town is searched and every Janissary officer that is caught is conducted to the Grand Vizier and by him ordered to death [].xx The 1826 Janissary purge paved the way for further reform; without the Janissaries, the conservatives were powerless, and in a state of disarray. The abolition of the Janissaries impacted significantly upon Ottoman society. Suraiya Farooqhi et al propose that in Constantinople, the destruction of the Janissary corps had economic and social, as well as political implications: in Istanbul [Constantinople] and many other cities, the Janissaries had played a crucial role in the Ottoman urban economy.xxi According to Maksudoglu, many shopkeepers held paid Janissary posts.xxii The Anglo-Turkish Convention (1838) abolished protectionist policies. Charlotte Jirousek, an expert in consumption studies, agrees that the convention formally established a policy of free trade and removed the longstanding protections on domestic manufacturers.xxiii Suraiya Farooqhi et al argue that the 1838 Anglo-Turkish Convention eliminated state monopolies and removed many of the barriers in the way of European merchants.xxiv The convention had a devastating impact on Ottoman manufacturers and craftsmen, Mansel agrees that the convention opened the empire to a flood of British goods and ruined many Ottoman crafts.xxv The destruction of the Janissary corps (1826) and the Anglo-Turkish Convention (1838) further integrated Ottoman and European economies, just as the 1839 Tanzimat decree more closely aligned the Middle Eastern with Western political structures. Mansel argues, it was the Sultans reason and his determination to save his monarchy, which drove him to modernise.xxvi Ahmad suggests that the reformers had become more convinced that the empires penetration by industrial Europe and its absorption into the expanding world market was the only way for the empire to survive and prosper.xxvii Though a valid argument, attempting to achieve absorption into the world market without first addressing pressing domestic social concerns deemed the economic reforms counter-productive. Mansel agrees, as a result of the 1838 treaty, beggars became more common on the streets of the city [Constantinople].xxviii Glenny cites a failure to industrialise as a principle cause behind the empires collapse. Though his argument is understandable, it isnt entirely accurate. There were attempts to industrialise, in so far as to mirror European industrial development. According to Mansel, the phrases English standards and European standards were constantly recurring in official letters. xxix The Armenian Dardian dynasty was central to the Ottoman industrialisation process. Hovhannes Amira Dardian, an international entrepreneur visited England and France at government expense to study the latest industrial techniques and to purchase steam engines. In November 1831, the first Ottoman newspaper, Takvim-i Vekayi (Calendar of Events), or Moniteur Ottoman was printed in both Ottoman and French editions. Disagreement between Glenny and Mansel ought not to be seen as a weakness in my argument since Glenny is focusing specifically on the Ottoman guild system and not on general industrialisation. Between 1826 and 1839 the Ottoman Empire struggled to control key provinces; Kinross describes the empire as continuing to shrink in extent, retaining despite decay its internal organs while losing through disruption its outlying limbs.xxx Though, Maksudoglu argues that European powers decided to end Osmanli suzerainty over Greece.xxxi Disagreement between Kinross and Maksudoglu may be more apparent than real, since Maksudoglu, as he confesses, is founding his assertions primarily on Ottoman sources. European influence proved pivotal in inciting the territories to rise up against Ottoman governance. The War of Independence exposed the weaknesses of the Sultans reforms. As Mansel agrees, the Sultans reforms did not help the Ottoman Empire in its struggle against the Greek revolt.xxxii The War of Greek Independence began 25 March 1821 and is certainly one of the central elements in bringing about the case for reform. The War of Greek Independence, though initially taking the form of a Greek cultural renaissance, was in fact an attempt by the Greeks to actively destabilize the Ottoman Empire; as Glenny suggests: the Greek rebellions of 1821 were not spontaneous reactions to deteriorating social and economic circumstances.xxxiii By June 1827, after six years of war, the Ottomans under the leadership of the commander Reshid Pasha, succeeded in subjugating continental Greece, this ought to have signalled the end of the war, instead occupation of mainland Greece prompted British, French, and Russian intervention; the Russians, in particular, put immense pressure on the Ottomans. Maksudoglu, strengthening the line of argument, argues that the Russians were guilty of inciting the Greeks to revolt.xxxiv The Austrians under Metternich favoured the suppression of the rebellious Greeks. The British, encouraged by the ambassador Sir Stratford Canning, fought the Ottoman government. According to Mansel, in an effort to persuade the Ottoman government to recognise Greece, European ambassadors, who felt physically threatened in Constantinople, left for the island of Poros between December 1827 and June 1829.xxxv On 20 October 1827, the Ottoman fleet was completely obliterated at the Battle of Navarino. The support of British, French and Russian navies for the Greeks insurgents violated the 1827 Treaty of London in which the three great powers had committed themselves to securing an armistice between the Greeks and the Ottomans, without taking part in the hostilities between contending parities.xxxvi The British, as suggested by Glenny, were egged on by the philhellenic sentiments of Sir Stratford Canning.xxxvii Kinross agrees: the great powers, the rival expansionist empires of Austria-Hungary and Russia, intrigued from behind their adjoining frontiers, marking out spheres of influence, stirring up satellites, and preparing to move when the moment was ripe.xxxviii The great powers crucially interfered in the affairs of the Ottoman provinces, destabilising the empire. Agreement between Glenny and Kinross reinforces the argument. In 1832, the Ottoman Army was convincingly defeated in Syria by Mehmet Alis Egyptian army led by his son, Ibrahim Pasha. The Sultans new army made up initially of ex-Janissaries, proved just as ineffective. Kinross describes the Sultans new troops as being not yet a match for so practiced an enemyxxxix. Marshal Marmont, a former marshal of Napoleon I and Charles X proclaimed: they are not troops; they are a reunion of men the character of whose general appearance is a miserable and humiliated air. It is clear that they are aware of their weakness.xl Agreement between Kinross and Marshal Marmont strengthens the argument that the 1826 Janissary purge was, to a large extent, a failure. The Sultan succeeded in getting rid of the Janissaries, but failed to effectively replace them. As Count Helmuth von Moltke, who in 1835 was brought from Prussia to train the army, put it: it was indispensable for him to clear the site before setting up his own building. [] The first part of his great tas k the Sultan carried through with perspicacity and resolution; in the second he failed.xli From the outset, Mehmet Ali was a thorn in the side of the Sublime Porte, as Kinross put it, he was the Sultans menacing vassalxlii. The Sultan was forced to turn to the Ottomans traditional enemies, the Russians. According to Kinross, this was because British Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston, who at the time was pursuing a policy of retrenchment of his armed forces, rejected his plea for aidxliii. Though on the other hand, Lord Ponsonby is said to have accused the Sultan of throwing his crown into the lap of the Emperor Nicholas and reminded him of the power of the British to stop the Russians and Mehmet Alixliv. In 1840 the British forced Ibrahim Pasha from Syria and bombarded Alexandria. Mehmet Ali pulled his troops out of Crete and Arabia and accepted the hereditary governorship of Egypt. By 1839 the Ottoman Empire had significantly deteriorated. The Tanzimat decrees (1839) were issued in exchange for support in Egypt. As Goodwin argues, in 1839, in return for the powers putting pressure on Mehmet Ali to accept hereditary governorship of Egypt, he issued [] a reformist charter.xlv Kinross describes the reforms beginning in 1839 as nothing less than the transformation of Turkey from a medieval empire, based on the principles of Islam into a modern constitutional state, based equally on the secular principles of the West.xlvi The assertions of both Goodwin and Kinross strengthen my argument; the Tanzimat issued in secular principles, although it was promulgated in order to receive foreign support in Egypt. Western powers used the artificial doctrine of nationalism as a means by which to incite the non-Muslim citizens of the empire to rebel against the Government. As Goodwin put it, nationalism was a pretence.xlvii My argument is strengthened by Maksudogluxlviii, Eccleshall et al, and in part, by Glennyxlix. Kinross adds, inspired by nationalist feelings, they sought to break free of the empire and carve up the country between them.l According to Goodwin, the Philhellenic movement is often accredited with being responsible for revitalising the Greek spirit and alerting the western governments to the suffering of the empires Greek Christians. This argument is both misleading and certainly untrue. The majority of the Philhellenes were more driven by personal greed than by a desire to see Greek independence; all observers, both Greek and non-Greek, exempt Lord Byron from this criticism. Glenny also points out that: Turkish rule over parts of Greece was no longer viable.li The tributes paid to Byron after his death, by both European politicians and literary figures pressured the British government to adopt a more interventionist stance.lii Most historians agree that the preservation of the Ottoman Empire was in the best interests of the great powers. According to the British Foreign Secretary Lord Castlereagh, barbarous as it is; Turkey forms in the system of Europe a necessary partliii. Wellington declared: The Ottoman Empire stands not for the benefit of the Turks but of Christian Europe.liv A Russian secret government committee in 1828 came to the conclusion that the advantages of the preservation of the Ottoman Empire outweigh its disadvantages (since it would probably be replaced by powers under influence of Britain or France).lv In the context of nineteenth century Europe, the preservation of the Ottoman Empire was a necessity for the great powers, but only in the sense that it was essential that the empire didnt come under rival control. The agreement between Castlereagh and Wellington focuses specifically on retaining the balance of power, and not on preserving the empire as a goal in and of itself. In conclusion, the reforms passed in the period 1826-1839 significantly contributed to the empires collapse. Although the Janissary purge, as argued by Ahmad and Mansel, was necessary as they were no longer effective; without them, the Sultan was allowed to accumulate debt unhindered. Debt led to inflation, soaring food prices and general discontent. The ulema, fearing similar treatment [as the Janissaries] were forced to remain silent. The Janissary purge failed to cure the problem of an ineffective army, and merely served to avenge the acts of disorder carried out by the corps. Without the Janissaries, and with the ulema now impotent, there was no defence against harmful reform e.g. the 1838 Anglo-Turkish Convention flooded the empire with British goods and ruined many Ottoman manufacturers, other reforms, though not necessarily harmful, proved nevertheless ineffective. As Kinross points out by Metternich and others [] [they] were cynically dismissed as an essay in window dressing.lvi If it were not for the Janissary Purge, then it is possible that the empire would have been in a better position to defend itself against foreign intervention and the Sultans excesses. i Suraiya Farooqhi, Bruce McGowan, Donald Quartaert and Serket Pamuk An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire Volume II 1600 1914 Cambridge University Press (1994) 2 Feroz Ahmad, The Making of Modern Turkey, Routledge (1993) iii E.Eldem, Pride and Privilege: A History of Ottoman Orders, Medals and Decorations, Istanbul (2004), p35 iv Stanford J. Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Cambridge University Press (1991) 5 Mehmet Maksudoglu, Osmanli History 1289-1922, International Islamic University, Malaysia (1999), pxxv vi Stanford J. Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Cambridge University Press (1991), pvii vii Jason Goodwin, Lords of the Horizons A History of the Ottoman Empire, Chatto Windus, London, (1998), p238 viii Feroz Ahmad, The Making of Modern Turkey, Routledge (1993), p24 ix Anonymous, quoted in Phillip Mansel, Constantinople City of the Worlds Desire 1453-1924, John Murray (Publishers), (1995), p256 10 Feroz Ahmad, The Making of Modern Turkey, Routledge (1993), p24 xi Phillip Mansel, Constantinople City of the Worlds Desire 1453-1924, John Murray (Publishers), (1995), p238 xii Ibid p249 13 Jason Goodwin, Lords of the Horizons A History of the Ottoman Empire, Chatto Windus, London, (1998), p.292 14 R.G.Grant, Battle a visual journey through 5,000 years of combat, DK, (2005), pg34 xv Mehmet Maksudoglu, Osmanli History 1289-1922, International Islamic University, Malaysia (1999), p214 xvi Jason Goodwin, Lords of the Horizons A History of the Ottoman Empire, Chatto Windus, London, (1998), p311 xvii Phillip Mansel, Constantinople City of the Worlds Desire 1453-1924, John Murray (Publishers), (1995), p274 xviii Allan Cunningham, Anglo-Ottoman Encounters in the Age of Revolution, (1993), p34 xix Jason Goodwin, Lords of the Horizons A History of the Ottoman Empire, Chatto Windus, London, (1998), p298 xx Bartolomeo Pisani, quoted in, Phillip Mansel, Constantinople City of the Worlds Desire 1453-1924, John Murray (Publishers), (1995), p238 21 Suraiya Farooqhi, Bruce McGowan, Donald Quartaert and Serket Pamuk An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire Volume II 1600 1914 Cambridge University Press (1994) xxii Mehmet Maksudoglu, Osmanli History 1289-1922, International Islamic University, Malaysia (1999), p209 xxiii Charlotte Jirousek The Transition to Mass Fashion System and Dress in the Later Ottoman Empire p213-230 Donald Quartaert, editor Consumption Studies and the History of the Ottoman Empire xxiv Suraiya Farooqhi, Bruce McGowan, Donald Quartaert and Serket Pamuk An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire Volume II 1600 1914 Cambridge University Press (1994) xxv Phillip Mansel, Constantinople City of the Worlds Desire 1453-1924, John Murray (Publishers), (1995), p258 xxvi Ibid, p250 26 Feroz Ahmad, The Making of Modern Turkey, Routledge (1993), p24 xxviii Ibid p258 xxix Ibid p254 xxx Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire, Morrow Quill Paperbacks, New York, (1977), p.440 xxxi Mehmet Maksudoglu, Osmanli History 1289-1922, International Islamic University, Malaysia (1999), p210 xxxii Phillip Mansel, Constantinople City of the Worlds Desire 1453-1924, John Murray (Publishers), (1995), p247 xxxiii Misha Glenny, The Balkans 1804-1999 Nationalism, War and the Great Powers, (Granata Books), London (1999) p26 xxxiv Mehmet Maksudoglu, Osmanli History 1289-1922, International Islamic University, Malaysia (1999), p208 xxxv Phillip Mansel, Constantinople City of the Worlds Desire 1453-1924, John Murray (Publishers), (1995), p248 xxxvi The Treaty of London (1827), quoted in, Misha Glenny, The Balkans 1804-1999 Nationalism, War and the Great Powers, (Granata Books), London (1999) p34 xxxvii Ibid xxxviii Lord Kinross, Ataturk A biography of Mustafa Kemal, father of modern Turkey, William Morrow and Company, New York, (1978), p8 xxxix Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire, Morrow Quill Paperbacks, New York, (1977), p467 xl Marshal Marmont, quoted in Phillip Mansel, Constantinople City of the Worlds Desire 1453-1924, John Murray (Publishers), (1995), p259 xli Count Helmuth von Moltke, quoted in, Jason Goodwin, Lords of the Horizons A History of the Ottoman Empire, Chatto Windus, London, (1998), p302 xlii Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire, Morrow Quill Paperbacks, New York, (1977), p467 xliii Ibid p468 xliv Phillip E. Moseley, Russian Diplomacy and the opening of the Eastern Question in 1838-1839, Harvard, (1934), p78 xlv Jason Goodwin, Lords of the Horizons A History of the Ottoman Empire, Chatto Windus, London, (1998), pg304 xlvi Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire, Morrow Quill Paperbacks, New York, (1977), p440 xlvii Jason Goodwin, Lords of the Horizons A History of the Ottoman Empire, Chatto Windus, London, (1998), pg295 xlviii Mehmet Maksudoglu, Osmanli History 1289-1922, International Islamic University, Malaysia (1999), p207 xlix Robert Eccleshall, Vincent Geoghegan, Richard Jay, Rick Wilford, Political Ideologies, Unwin Hyman, London (1990) l Lord Kinross, Ataturk A biography of Mustafa Kemal, father of modern Turkey, William Morrow and Company, New York, (1978), p8 li Misha Glenny, The Balkans 1804-1999 Nationalism, War and the Great Powers, (Granata Books), London (1999) p35 lii Ibid, Lord Castlereagh liii Ibid p248, The Duke of Wellington liv Ibid lv Ibid lvi Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire, Morrow Quill Paperbacks, New York, (1977), p475 Bibliography Feroz Ahmad, The Making of Modern Turkey, Routledge (1993) Allan Cunningham, Anglo-Ottoman Encounters in the Age of Revolution, Routledge (1993) Robert Eccleshall, Vincent Geoghegan, Richard Jay, Rick Wilford, Political Ideologies, Unwin Hyman, London (1990) E.Eldem, Pride and Privilege: A History of Ottoman Orders, Medals and Decorations, Istanbul (2004) Suraiya Farooqhi, Bruce McGowan, Donald Quartaert and Serket Pamuk An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire Volume II 1600 1914 Cambridge University Press (1994) Misha Glenny, The Balkans 1804-1999 Nationalism, War and the Great Powers, (Granata Books), London (1999) Jason Goodwin, Lords of the Horizons A History of the Ottoman Empire, Chatto Windus, London, (1998) R.G.Grant, Battle a visual journey through 5,000 years of combat, DK, (2005) Halil Inalcik, The Ottoman Empire; The Classical Age 1300-1600, London (1973) Charlotte Jirousek The Transition to Mass Fashion System and Dress in the Later Ottoman Empire Donald Quartaert, editor Consumption Studies and the History of the Ottoman Empire State University of New York Press (2000) Lord Kinross, Ataturk A biography of Mustafa Kemal, father of modern Turkey, William Morrow and Company, New York, (1978) Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire, Morrow Quill Paperbacks, New York, (1977) Mehmet Maksudoglu, Osmanli History 1289-1922, International Islamic University, Malaysia (1999) Phillip E. Moseley, Russian Diplomacy and the opening of the Eastern Question in 1838-1839, Harvard, (1934) Stanford J. Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Cambridge University Press (1991)

Functions and brain mechanisms of sleep

Functions and brain mechanisms of sleep Sleep, it is the state in which we spend much of our lives yet so little is known about it. It has long fascinated psychologists and many have sought to unravel its mysteries. Yet like all other behaviours sleep can be examined using the same biological, psychological and environmental methods that are so effective in other areas. Defined, sleep is a naturally recurring state which is characterized by reduced or absent consciousness, relatively suspended sensory activity, and inactivity of nearly all voluntary muscles. However this explains what is visible, over the years theorists tried to explain what is happening biologically during sleep. Up until the 1950s researchers believed that sleep occurred due to an overtaxing of the brain, that the constant sensory stimulation that bombards the brain during the day renders it unable to maintain a waking level of brain activity. They also believed that achieving this state was helped by the occurrence of the darkness and silence of night. Sleep at this time was also viewed as a homogeneous state and as a result of this many researchers viewed it as relatively uninteresting. This may be a reason why very little scientific attention was put on the topic for so long. In fact dream interpretation garnered far more attention at this time (Dement, 1998). This passive process theory was only dropped when experimenters recorded eye movement and muscle tension during sleep. This led to the groundbreaking discovery that there were in fact two different classes of sleep, rapid eye movement (REM) and non-rapid eye movement sleep(NREM) (Watson, Breedlove Rosenweig, 2010). In this essay sleep, both rapid-eye movement and slow-wave, will be explored. Also set out will be the main functions of sleep and what can happen when a person is deprived of sleep. Finally the sleep disorder narcolepsy will be discussed as it is an often misunderstood disorder which shows the mal effects when control over when to sleep is lost. Sleep can be divided into 5 stages, 4 of these stages are during NREM with the final stage being REM sleep. These stages are measurable by the patterns of electrical activity in the brain. When awake the brain shows patterns of beta waves. These have a high frequency and low amplitude. When in a state of relaxation the brain shows waves with lower frequencies, these are called alpha waves (Passer Smith, 2009) Stage 1 of NREM occurs just as the body drifts into sleep. At this stage the brain begins to demonstrate theta waves. These waves are slower again than those measured during a drowsy state and have irregular frequencies, the heart rate also slows and muscle tension is reduced. This stage normally lasts several minutes, giving way to stage 2. Here the brain shows short (1-2 seconds) periodic bursts of brain activity. These bursts are called sleep spindles. Interesting to note is that often people deny that they were even asleep if they are awakened during either the first or second stage. As the body drifts even deeper into slumber stage 3 is reached, here delta waves are the most dominant. These are of an extremely low frequency and have large amplitude. Stage 4 is very similar to stage 3 and shows further lowering of frequency and expansion of amplitude. Stages 3 and 4 are also sometimes referred to as slow-wave sleep (SWS) by some researchers. After reaching this stage the body the n cycles through the previous stages and generally after 60-70 minutes of falling asleep the body has gone through a cycle of stages 1-2-3-4-3-2. It is at this point that brain activity changes alarmingly and a brand new and unique stage of sleep emerges. This new stage is called rapid-eye movement (REM) sleep (Watson et al, 2010). This stage of sleep was discovered by Aserinky and Klietman in 1952 and is characterised by high brain arousal, rapid eye movement and frequent vivid dreaming. These researchers found that during this phase the sleeper showed bursts of muscular action which resulted in the persons eyes moving rapidly underneath the eye lid, this happened around every minute during REM sleep. People that were awakened during this stage frequently report having a dream, this is even true of people who before claimed to have never dreamed (Passer Smith, 2009). Brain activity increases to daytime levels and the body also becomes physiologically aroused, with more rapid breathing and a swifter heartbeat. Another characteristic of this stage of sleep is that the bodies of both men and women become aroused, regardless of dream content, with penile erections in men and vaginal lubrication in women. The brain also can send signals to the muscles of the arms legs and torso which make them become very relaxed, they occasionally twitch but movement is not possible at this time. This is sometimes referred to as sleep paralysis. After an average of 90 minutes the body begins the cycle of stages anew, however with each recurrence REM sleep lasts longer, eating into the time previously spent in stage 3 (Passer Smith, 2009). The brain controls the passage of the body through sleep however no single part of it is solely responsible for it. Various mechanisms in the brain control the different aspects of the sleeping body, areas on the base of the forebrain are connected with the act of falling asleep. Other sections in the brain active during sleep are certain areas in the brain stem which regulates REM sleep. Here neurons are contained which activate the other brain systems which are needed during REM such as those for the rapid-eye movement and muscular paralysis. Memories are accessed during REM sleep and this is also governed by these areas in the brain stem. This affects what is experienced during dreams(Watson et al, 2010). Having explored the biology behind sleep it is now worth looking at the benefits of sleep, both physiological and psychological. There are two major branches of thinking which explore the question of why do we sleep? These are the restoration models and the evolutionary/circadian models (Passer Smith, 2009). According to the evolutionary models sleep recharges run-down bodies, it allows us to recover from physical and mental fatigue. This is largely supported by research in sleep deprivation. A good example of one of these studies is the world record attempt by Randy Gardener in 1964. He stayed awake for 11 days as part of a school science fair project and he allowed sleep researchers to study him during this period. Over the first few days he was irritable, forgetful and nauseous, by the fifth day he began to experience periods of disorientation and had mild hallucinations and by the end he experienced slurred speech and finger tremors (Gulevich, Dement Johnson, 1966). This research clearly shows physiological and psychological problems that arise from sleep deprivation. However it has been proven that less sleep is needed as you age with older adults living healthy lives on only 5 or 6 hours sleep. In fact there is one example of a 70 year old woman who could survive on 1 hour of slee p a night. Many researchers also believe that a cellular waste chemical called adenosine has a role in the restorative functions of sleep. Adenosine is produced as cells produce energy. At high levels adenosine inhibits brain functionality and levels of it decrease during deep sleep (Passer Smith, 2009). Evolutionary/Circadian models state that the main function of sleep is prolonging a species survival relative to its environmental demands. It backs up its evidence based on the fact that prehistorically our ancestors had very little to gain by being active at night as food gathering etc was much more easily accomplished in the day. The model puts forward the idea that over the course of the evolution of a species a circadian sleep is developed. This is a wake pattern that becomes heredity due to certain factors such as its status in the predator prey relationship and its food requirements. Also researchers backing this model believe that sleep also evolved as a way of conserving energy, putting forward the fact that we use up to 25% less energy when asleep (Watson et al, 2010). A controversial theory on a benefit of sleep is one that links it to memory consolidation. The purpose of REM sleep remains unknown and some have put forward the idea that it is a tool that the brain uses to consolidate memories, a process in which the brain transfers information to the long term memory. This consolidation hypothesis is however contradicted by the fact that studies show that even when a person has little or no REM sleep due to a side effect of anti-depressant drugs they show no impairment of long term memory capacity. This has led some to state that REM sleep is necessary on a purely biological level. These theorists believe that the body uses REM sleep primarily to keep the brain from long periods of low arousal as they believe this could have damaging effects. The true purpose of REM sleep is still debated (Watson et al, 2010). An interesting study by Paller and Voss provided evidence that suggests that when memories are accessed during dreaming they can be subtly altered by the dream. This has is to do with memory consolidation. There study showed that the brain does use dreams, at least on a small scale, to aid in memory consolidation as has been previously known. However that the brain can alter these dreams is intriguing to say the least (Paller Voss, 2004). Whereas it has been discussed how too little sleep can impair the body, here, the sleep disorder narcolepsy will be explored, showing how a inability to stay awake can also cause problems to an individuals lifestyle. About 1 out of every 2000 people suffer from narcolepsy, those living with the disorder have to deal with daily bouts of sleepiness and uncontrollable sleep attacks where they can go into sudden sleep for less than a minute to a whole hour. Often these sleep attacks are accompanied by sleep paralysis or hypnagoic hallucinations. Some researchers believe that narcolepsy is a disorder involving an intrusion by REM sleep into waking life. It is believed that narcolepsy is cause because of a chemical imbalance in the hypothalamus. There is no cure but some ant-depressant drugs appear to be effective in reducing episodes, this could be due to their suppression of REM sleep. In conclusion, research around sleep has come a long way since its humble beginnings. We now know far more about the biology behind sleep and yet much of it, including REM sleep still confounds many researchers. This essay has also outlined the many benefits that sleep has, both physiological and psychological and has shown the difficulties that arise from a lack of it and has shed some light on the obscure and misunderstood sleep disorder narcolepsy. It is hoped that research will continue on in the future and hopefully the mysteries surrounding the state which we spend almost a third of our life in will be unravelled.

Snakecharmer and In the Snake Park :: essays research papers

The poem, â€Å"Snakecharmer†, is a poem that conveys an underlying theme of power and control, as represented by the snakecharmer, through the nature of the snakes and their relationship with the snakecharmer.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There is no consistent rhyme scheme to the poem, and almost all the stanzas in the poem have run-on lines to the following stanza. The effect these create is a general atmosphere of inconsistency and disorder. The run-on lines also place an emphasis upon the last word of the stanza and the first word of the following, helping the poet impress upon the reader the significance of words such as â€Å"river†, â€Å"tongues†, â€Å"snakes†, â€Å"shapes† and â€Å"rules†. The atmosphere of inconsistency and disorder that is created can also be linked to the free, uncontrollable movement of the snakes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The poet also uses repetition of the word snake to impress upon the reader the fact that snakes are all there is in this world, a hypnotic effect that brings clearly to the reader the image of a â€Å"world of snakes†. The sibilance of the words Plath chooses to use creates an indistinctly ominous effect that is lazy and almost hypnotic to the reader. The sibilant â€Å"s† is present at least once in every line of the poem, exaggerating that effect, which is very much like the movement of a snake holding its prey in thrall before the kill. Thus the atmosphere of disorder and inconsistency is threaded with an indistinct sense of foreboding for the reader.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the first stanza, the â€Å"snakecharmer† is generalized as he is juxtaposed with â€Å"gods† and â€Å"man†. The grand style of the first line is continued through to the second as the charming of snakes is likened to the beginning of worlds; â€Å"begins a snaky sphere†. Here the reader is made aware of the amount of power the snakecharmer possesses in his control over the snakes. The grand style abovementioned gives a sense of grandeur to the snakecharmer, and the tone of this stanza is subtly respectful towards him. In the last line of the stanza, the word â€Å"pipes† is repeated; â€Å"mouth-pipe. He pipes. Pipes green. Pipes water†; that has an almost hypnotic effect on the reader. This could be because the repetition of a word coupled with frequent use of caesuras gives a calming effect that can soothe the reader while commanding his attention. This is precisely the effect the snakecharmer has on the snakes.

Analysis of Comments on a New York Times Article Essay

The article. â€Å"Forced From Executive Pay to Hourly Wage. † which was written by Michael Luo and was published in the New York Times last February 28. 2009. fundamentally told the narrative of people who used to gain five or six-figure sums per twelvemonth. are now being paid hourly minimal rewards. One illustration in the article was the instance of Mark Cooper. who used to gain $ 70. 000 as a security director for Fortune 500 Company in the United States and who oversees a budget of $ 1. 2 million. Nine months ago. he lost his occupation and now he is gaining $ 12 an hr in his occupation at his friend’s janitorial services company. Although the article itself is appealing plenty. it is besides interesting to observe the readers’ remarks about it. As of now. there are 300 remarks about the article and upon reexamining most of them. it can be surmised that each reader who commented had significantly different point of views and sentiments about the narrative told in the New York Times article. Obviously. these readers adhere to different moral codifications which are seen through their responses. In general. the readers who commented on the article can be divided into two groups: one group lauded the brave act of Mark Cooper while the other criticized the manner of authorship and the elusive message that New York Times author used in the article. One of the reader’s who praised the article narrative admired the bravery of Mr. Cooper as he was able to take down his pride and found ways to supply for his household even if it means that he has to scour lavatories and hold his salary dramatically reduced from five figures to an hourly pay without any benefits. In a sense. this group extremely regarded the value of difficult work and get downing all over once more in a dignified manner. Most of their remarks fundamentally indicated that Mr. Cooper is non entirely and that there are 100s of Americans who have similar â€Å"riches to rags† narratives. These readers. based on their remarks. besides believed that there is no shame being hapless every bit long as 1 has a dignified and lawful occupation. On other manus. the other group of readers who commented on the article criticized the New York Times for insinuating that those who work blue-collar occupations are lower signifiers of human existences than those who work white-collar 1s. They see the article as know aparting to Americans who have been populating their lives below the poorness line for a long clip even before the current economic crisis. For illustration. one reader lamented that article more or less showed that a $ 12-an-hour occupation is an indecorous manner of life. which is non true. In add-on. one reader did non experience sorry for Mr. Cooper and commented that he had a batch to be grateful for because he lives in an above norm house and was able to populate a rich life. To this reader. the economic crisis makes everyone in America equal because they are fighting to do ends meet. However. what’s common in all the readers’ responses is that they could all associate to the troubles experienced by the people depicted in the article. In fact some of the readers. who are obviously from different walks of life. shared their ain narratives in their remarks. In other words. the individual factor that binds all the readers who commented is the adversity brought approximately by the fiscal crisis in America. In a manner. the article’s remarks show two things: one is that there are a batch of Americans who are so used to a good life that they are apparently caught off-guard when a lay waste toing fiscal crisis like this hits them and the other is that due to the crisis. most Americans would be willing to take on any occupation merely to last. But the remarks besides indicated that Americans are more incorporate in accomplishing a common end which is to retrieve from the lay waste toing effects of the crisis and reconstruct their lives. Works Cited Luo. Mark. â€Å"Forced From Executive Pay to Hourly Wage. † 28 February 2009. New York Times. 4 March 2009 & lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www. nytimes. com/2009/03/01/us/01survival. hypertext markup language? pagewanted=1 & A ; _r=2 & A ; sq=executive % 20janitor & A ; st=cse & A ; scp=1 & gt ; .

Forge by Laurie Anderson Literary Analysis

Forge is Laurie Halse Anderson’s second installment to the Chains series following up her previous novel, Chains. The escapades of the young African American slaves, Isabel and Curzon, continue in this sequel to Chains. Young Curzon and Isabel are forced to endure the hardships of maturing during the demanding time of the American Revolution. Curzon and Isabel are runaway slaves who have a high risk of getting captured with their past catching up to them every step of the way. Forge is told from the perspective of Curzon in a journal-like fashion, each entry has a date. Laurie Halse Anderson had a team of researchers gather an immense amount of information on the American Revolution and the time period to make her Historical Fiction novel as realistic as possible. By making Forge’s novel structure journal entries from Curzon’s angle, Anderson was adept in making the reader connect, investigate, and comprehend his character and the American Revolution further. Curzon is faced with many changes in the Forge including maturing into a young adult. Many readers will be able to make a strong connection to the feelings and the new challenges evoked by young Curzon’s first hand view into becoming a man. Anderson’s target audience is young adults for a reason. Forge is a great â€Å"coming of age novel† like The Adventures of Huckleberry Fin. Since the book is in a journal entry format, many readers who are going through the similar changes can get a day by day account of growing up which creates a very strong relationship between the reader and Curzon. Curzon experiences mixed emotions for Isabel, even ones that he has never felt before. Curzon seemed to have a big brother type of relationship at the beginning of Forge but toward the end he develops somewhat of tenderness for Isabel. All the amends to his life are very evident in his action which is an experience that everyone will more. Each journal entry is headed with an important date that has relevance to events that happen in the American Revolution. Curzon was a soldier in the Patriot army which subjected him to many battles. After reading a Chapter in Forge, you can search the date of the entry. You can find out a great deal more about what Curzon was experiencing. Anderson didn’t just find dates to match events, she had to make Curzon’s point of view as realistic as possible. This required in depth knowledge and study of other eye witness accounts of the American Revolution. Practically everything in Anderson’s novel is has historical significance, even some of the characters. While reading Forge, you are absorbing the culture and events of the Revolutionary War. Slavery is one of our nation’s biggest regrets. Winning our independence is the United States proudest moment. The two are much intertwined with each other and especially with Curzon. Each entry in Forge is filled with the hardships of being a slave and fighting for freedom as well as fighting for your country. Curzon is the narrator of Forge; each of his thoughts and feelings are described carefully in each entry. The callous and inhumane ways that Curzon was treated were completely preposterous. If Forge wasn’t formatted into diary-like entries, the reader would have a much harder time understanding the impulses of Curzon. The first person point of you makes you value his lust for freedom and his covet for the lovely Isabel much more than if it were written any other way.